Summary In the thirteenth century, crusading armies unleashed a relentless holy war against the pagan tribal groups of the Eastern Baltic, whose territories were conquered and reorganized into Christian states run by the Teutonic Order, bishops, and their cathedral chapters. Castles were built, towns established, and colonists encouraged to settle under the leadership of the new Christian theocracy. But the changes introduced alongside Christianity not only transformed the culture of eastern Baltic societies, but also had a profound and - for the Baltic tribes, who saw many aspects of the natural world as sacred - deeply significant impact on the local environment. This seminal period in the environmental history of north-eastern Europe has been the focus of the ERC-funded research programme, 'The Ecology of Crusading', which explored the physical and conceptual ecological transformations associated with warfare, colonization, and religious conversion. This second Terra Sacra volume draws together a series of case-studies on Livonia and Prussia that provide a unique snapshot of recent research into environmental change during the Baltic Crusades and also explore long-term trends in landscape organization and environmental exploitation. The volume covers six key themes: building-construction in the conquered territories; food supply to the houses of the Teutonic Order; life in the multi-cultural towns of the eastern Baltic; transforming the physical landscape; transforming the spiritual landscape; and the Baltic Ordensland in its regional context. It forms a companion to Environment, Colonization, and the Baltic Crusader States: Terra Sacra I. TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgements Glossary List of Illustrations Introduction: Multi-Scalar Impacts of Crusading on the Environments of the Eastern Baltic -ALEKSANDER PLUSKOWSKI The Environmental Setting of the Earliest Teutonic Order Stronghold in Elbl?g - JOANNA FONFEREK Timber and its Use from the Late Iron Age to the End of the Medieval Period in Latvia - M?RIS ZUNDE Resources for Castle Building in Medieval Prussia and Livonia - K.?M.?J. HAYWARD with a contribution by STUART BLACK Animal Exploitation in Karksi and Viljandi (Estonia) in the Late Iron Age and Medieval Period - EVE RANNAM E AND LEMBI L UGAS Written Evidence Concerning the Resources of the Teutonic Order in Livonia: The Cases of Karkus and Fellin - JUHAN KREEM Carbon and Nitrogen Stable Isotope Evidence for Animal Husbandry and Environmental Change in the Medieval Kulmerland - CHARLOTTE SCULL, GUNDULA M LDNER, AND DANIEL MAKOWIECKI The Plant Element in the Diet of the Inhabitants of Danzig (Gda?sk), Elbing (Elbl?g), and Marienburg (Malbork) During the Rule of the Teutonic Order: Historical and Archaeobotanical Perspectives - MONIKA BADURA AND BEATA MO?EJKO A Foul Perspective: Analysis of Invertebrate Remains in a mid-Fourteenth-Century Latrine from Riga, Latvia - GARY?A. KING Parasites and Baltic Crusading in Medieval Riga: Insights into Disease, Diet, and Hygiene - HUI-YUAN YEH AND PIERS?D. MITCHELL Evidence of Human Impact and Vegetation Change during the Late Iron Age and the Medieval Livonian Period at Some Sites along the Lower Course of the River Daugava - LAIMDOTA KALNI?A, AIJA CERI?A, KRISTAPS KIZIKS, KARINA STANKEVI?A, AGNESE PUJ?TE, AND ANDA DRU?KA Palaeoecological Evidence of Crusades and Subsequent Impact on the Livonian Landscape - NORMUNDS STIVRI??, SIIM VESKI, AND TRIIN REITALU Sacred Landscapes of Medieval Livonia: Lands of the Teutonic Order in Southern Estonia - HEIKI VALK Surkapurn and Kreken: The Phenomena of Name and Place and the Organization of Sacred Space in Prussia Using Archaeology and Other Sources - SEWERYN SZCZEPA?SKI Continuity and Discontinuity in the Sacral Landscape of Lithuania - VYKINTAS VAITKEVI?IUS Reorganizing the Livonian Landscape: Some Issues and Research Perspectives - KASPARS K?AVI?? Exploiting Animals in the Medieval North-Western Russian Frontier - MARK MALTBY The Teutonic Order's Role in the Development of a Medieval Eastern Baltic Cod Fishery: Evidence from Fish Bone Isotopes - DAVID ORTON, EVE RANNAM E, LEMBI L UGAS, DANIEL MAKOWIECKI, SHEILA HAMILTON-DYER, ALEKSANDER PLUSKOWSKI, TAMSIN O'CONNELL, AND JAMES BARRETT